The Role Of Prophecy

The Odyssey: The Role of Prophecy
    by Kim Lumbard
    
    When one ponders the Greek mythology and literature, powerful images
invariably come to mind.  One relives the heroes' struggles against
innumerable odds, their battles against magical monsters, and the gods'
periodic intervention in mortal affairs.  Yet, a common and often essential
portion of a heroic epic is the hero's consultation with an oracle or
divinity.  This prophecy is usually critical to the plot line, and also to the
well being of the main characters.  Could Priam have survived in the Achaian
camp if not at the gods' instruction? Could the Argos have run the gauntlet of
the Prowling Rocks if not for the gods' advice of using a sacrificial bird?  
    Moreover, prophecy can be negative as well as positive.  Achilleus was
prophesied to die gloriously in battle if he chose his life's way as a
warrior.  Oedipus was exiled and condemned by his own words, after he slew his
sire and wed his mother.  This type of prophecy can bind even the gods
themselves; Chronos was fated to be defeated and his throne stolen by his son.
Demeter loses Persephone periodically every year because her daughter ate
Hades' pomegranates.  Prophecy plays an important role in the whole of Greek
folklore.  Something this ever-present bears further examination. 
    In the Odyssey, prophecy in its myriad forms affects nearly every aspect
of the epic.  Prophecies are seen in the forms of omens, signs, strict
prediction of the future, divine condemnation, and divine instruction.  Though
conceptually these forms are hard to distinguish, they are clearly separate in
the Odyssey.  Moreover, prophecies can be interpreted not only on the "plot
device" level, but also on the level of characterization.  Whether a character
accepts or denies the gods' prophecies tells the reader something about the
character himself.  
    Omens are brief prophecies intimately connected to the action at hand,
which must be interpreted in terms of that action.  Halitheses comments on the
eagle attack after Telemakhos condemns the suitors (B. 150-196)* ; he
correctly interprets it to mean that if the suitors keep feeding off
Odysseus's possessions they will be destroyed.  Yet the suitors ignore the
omen, inviting their eventual destruction.  This haughty treatment of a divine
omen is a justification for their deaths.  When Penelope says if Odysseus had
returned he would, with his son, surely slay the suitors, Telemakhos let loose
a great sneeze (R. 706-711).  This omen reinforces the previous one, and
simultaneously prepares the reader for the carnage to follow. 
    Signs are similar to omens, but differ in one crucial aspect: the
prophesee is looking for a specific omen in order to decide whether he should
or should not take some action.  There is only one good example of a sign in
the Odyssey; in U. 110-135, Odysseus asks Zeus for two divine signs to decide
if it is time to slay the suitors.  Zeus answers with a thunderclap from a
cloudless sky and allows Odysseus to overhear a maid's want for vengeance.
Because of these signs, Odysseus begins his plan to slay the suitors.  Later
on, with a thunderclap Zeus actually signals for the precise time to strike.
Signs are helpful devices; they allow not only a rationalization for when an
event occurs but also shows the approval of the gods on such an action. 
    Not only are signs and omens plentiful in the Odyssey, but also the type
one usually associates with prophesying, strict prediction of the future,
abounds as well.  Penelope states that she will marry the man who can string
Odysseus's bow and perform his famous feat (F. 78-83).  Since Odysseus is the
only one to do so, the prophecy is fulfilled.  This "prophecy" is just a
statement of the future; it contains no judgmental quality whatsoever.
Theoklymenos's prophesies to Penelope that Odysseus is at hand on the island
and plotting vengeance on the suitors (R. 190-202). This, of course, is
already true, so the prophecy is technically true as well.  However, it makes
no judgement on the rightness or wrongness of either Odysseus's or the
suitors' position. 
    Teiresias shade's speech to Odysseus (L. 112-152) is a strictly objective
foretelling, but nevertheless crucial to the plot and character development.
He states that Odysseus will land on Thrinakia; that if his shipmates eat
Helios's cattle they will be destroyed; that Odysseus will make the suitors
pay in blood; and that if he makes reparations to Lord Poseidon he will be
granted a gentle seaborne death.  Though Teiresias's prophecy is devoid of the
bias which signs and omens possess, it contains enough to characterize not
only him but also Odysseus.  Teiresias is level-headed and just, "forever /
charged with reason even among the dead" (K. 547-548).  Odysseus is
characterized by his reply to Teiresias: "my life runs on then as the gods
have spun it" (L. 155).  Odysseus does not try to escape his destiny or change
the prophecy to suit his personal desire; he merely accepts it and thereby
accepts the will of the gods. 
    Although there are myriad examples of divinities avenging themselves on
mortals for wrongdoings, there is only one good example of divine condemnation
contained directly within a prophecy.  Aigisthos is warned by the gods not to
kill Agamemnon (A. 58-60), but he ignores the advice and is eventually slain
by Orestes, Agamemnon's son.  By his very act of not heeding to the prophecy,
he invites the gods' revenge; the gods avenge themselves by allowing the
prophecy to be fulfilled.  In this case, the gods condemn Aigisthos through
the prophecy because he did not listen to it in the first place!  
    Easily the most often seen type of prophecy is that of divine instruction.
A sample follows: Hermes gives Odysseus advice and help on how to overcome
Circe's trials (K. 317-340); Circe turns around and instructs Odysseus on how
to get to the underworld (K. 559-597);  Circe also later tells Odysseus the
route he is destined to take home, and the trials he will face (M. 45-130,
135-170); through Calypso, Zeus prophesies that Odysseus will return to the
"civilized world" on Skheria after twenty days at sea ( E. 32-47).  A general
relation between a character's traits and his heeding of prophecies can be
seen when the prophecies are divine instruction.  If the character follows the
gods' advice he will prosper.  But the advice is offered not because a man is
prosperous but because he is worthy.  Therefore, if a man is worthy, he will
repeatedly receive advice, and vice versa.  How is a man worthy?  By being
brave, honorable, true, and following the gods' advice! 
    This relation is strictly a generalization, but can be applied to the
other types of prophecies as well.  The generalization helps us characterize
the prophesees by their heeding of the prophecy.  On the negative side,
Aigisthos was slain because he didn't heed the gods' warning; this makes him
unworthy, which means he wasn't brave, honorable, etc.  The suitors repeatedly
ignored the omens of the gods and Halitheses's prophecy, therefore they were
unworthy and deserved to die, etc.  On the positive side, because Odysseus is
worthy he is brave, honorable, true, and follows the gods' advice.  Also,
because he is worthy the gods offer him advice.  It is circular sequential
logic, but it holds in the book.  Odysseus blinds Polyphemus, offends his
father, and Poseidon extends Odysseus's voyage home.  But because Odysseus is
worthy and just made an error, the gods guide him back to reconciliation with
the earth-shaker.  How?  Bad luck leads Odysseus to Aiaia.  There Hermes helps
him face Circe.  Because of this, Circe leads Odysseus to the underworld and
Teiresias.  Teiresias instructs Odysseus on how to appease Lord Poseidon;
Circe tells Odysseus how to get home. 
    Moreover, though it is difficult to see, prophecies also help characterize
the prophesier, in the Odyssey, mainly the gods.  That the gods have the power
to see the future sets them apart from mortals; that they use this information
wisely indicates that they are responsible beings.  That a worthy man like
Odysseus continually follows their advice means that the gods are trustworthy;
that they can fulfill their prophecies even without the prophesee's
cooperation shows that they are powerful.  So the interaction of prophesier
with prophesee tells us that the gods are powerful, responsible, trustworthy
and aloof.  This description is not exact, but within the superstructure of
the Odyssey it is approximately correct. 
    All the different forms of prophecy, omens, signs, strict prediction,
divine condemnation and instruction, collectively contribute to the plot and
character development.  Though its use as a plot device is more easily seen,
its use for characterization in the Odyssey is far more important.  In
previous works, prophecy was used strictly as a plot rationalization, but in
the Odyssey it has a critical role, affecting both the plot and characters.

* NOTE: All line numbers come from the English translation done by Robert
Fitzgerald.